Annotated bibliography

Flanagan, J.C. (1954). The Critical Incident Technique. Psychological Bulletin, 51, 4. Retrieved November 15, 2009, from http://www.apa.org/psycinfo/special/cit-article.pdf

Flanagan (1954) defines critical incidents and the Critical incident Technique; and provides a depiction of this procedure, describing the five main steps included in its present form. Additionally, examples of studies applying the critical incident technique are provided as well as possible areas in which this technique can be applied. All in all, the author supplies some conclusions and a brief summary of the article.

Focusing on paragraph organization

A paragraph is a group of related sentences which develop one main idea called the topic. Within a paragraph we may find topic sentences, supporting sentences and concluding sentences. A topic sentence is a general idea that tells the reader what the paragraph is about. It is a complete sentence that has a subject, a verb, and a controlling idea. A supporting sentence develops the topic sentence and gives special information about the topic. And, a concluding sentence completes and summarizes the development of the topic of the sentence (Pintos, 2009)
Let’s consider the following topic sentences:
a-Explorers investigating a large area located in the south of Venezuela called that area “The Lost World” because of what they found there.
b-Several signs can be observed before and during the passage of a cold front.
The controlling ideas in a) are: explorers, a large area, south of Venezuela, “The Lost World”, and what they found there. Two possible questions that may be answered in the paragraphs following this topic sentence are: Which explorers? And, What did they find there? In addition, two possible supporting sentences may be:
-Since quicksand was found in some parts of the area, explorers could not search for the missing ring.
-After many hours walking round the area, they found the ring in the finger of the corpse.
Moreover, an appropriate concluding sentence for a) could be:
-Nevertheless, “The Lost World” will remain a mystery.
The controlling ideas in b) are: several, signs, observed, and the passage of a cold front. Two possible questions answered in the possible following paragraphs might be: How many signs? And, What kind of signs? Besides, two possible subordinate sentences could be:
-Cold fronts may on occasion be preceded by squall lines or dry lines.
-Additionally, cold fronts may feature narrow bands of thunderstorms and severe weather.
Finally, a possible concluding sentence for this topic sentence may be:
-Consequently, the passage of cold fronts promotes changes in the entire ecosystem.
Having analyzed these two topic sentences and proposed possible subordinate and concluding sentences, a reinforcing practice on paragraph organization has been provided.


Reference

Pintos, V. (2008) Unit 3: Academic Writing. Universidad CAECE: Buenos Aires,
Argentina. Retrieved September 2009, from http://caece.campusuniversidad.com.ar/mod/resource/view.php?id=2725

Critical incidents in teacher training

Being an educator is a hard task; most of us had to learn a lot and prepare for this incredible experience that is teaching. But, Were we really prepared? Teaching may be much different in practice than in theory. As a result, the use of critical incidents has been included in teacher training in order to prepare future educators for unexpected classroom situations.
A critical incident is a strategy in which particular teaching situations are presented to the future educators, who are asked to take a decision taking into consideration the provided information. This allows students to make an analysis of the specific situations without running any risks; thus, getting closer to reality (Fernández & Fernández, 1994). Furthermore, critical incidents in teacher training are structured in a) the context in which they occur, b) the description of the incident, c) the possible causes, and d) the solutions. Consequently, students have many aspects to consider when reaching their conclusions.
Personally, I do not think I was really prepared when I started teaching but I learnt to manage critical incidents in the practice. During my first month at school, I realized that one of my students was very active in class but got very low marks in the weekly tests. I tried to find out what was wrong and so I asked him/her whether he/she found tests very difficult or if he/she didn’t understand instructions. He/she insisted that he did not know what the problem was. I also noted that his/her handwriting was very careless and almost illegible. Finally, after consulting my coordinator and talking to his/her mother, we decided that he/she should take weekly tests orally. Therefore, the solution was reached but I was not able to find out what the real problem was; at that moment I realized how unprepared I was and how much more there was still to learn.
Concluding, I want to point out the fact that it is absolutely essential that future teachers get involved in more real classroom situations before graduating. The implementation of critical incidents in teacher training is a fantastic strategy that will definitely lead to the improvement of teaching-learning processes.


Reference

Elórtegui Escartín, N., Fernández González, J. & Medina Pérez, M. (2003). Los
incidentes críticos en la formación y perfeccionamiento del profesorado de secundaria de ciencias de la naturaleza. Revista Interuniversitaria de Formación de Profesorado, 17 - 001. Zaragoza, España: Universidad de Zaragoza. Retrieved November 10, 2009, from http://redalyc.uaemex.mx/redalyc/src/inicio/ArtPdfRed.jsp?iCve=27417107

Reflecting upon the teaching practice

There are different methods that help educators reflect upon their practices and the critical incident technique is one of them. Flanagan (1954) states in his article, “The Critical Incident Technique”, that this technique is composed of “a set of procedures for collecting direct observation of human behavior in such a way as to facilitate their potential usefulness in solving practical problems and developing broad psychological principles”(p.1). The writer defines an incident as any observable human activity that allows inferences and predictions about the person performing the act which, in order to be critical, must take place in a situation where the purpose of the act is clear to the observer and where the consequences are definite.
Flanagan (1954) emphasizes that this critical incident technique should be considered as a “flexible set of principles which must be modified and adapted to meet the specific situation at hand”, not as single rigid set of rules (p.9). Objectivity plays an important role in this technique since the extent to which the report of an observation can be considered as a fact depends on the objectivity of the observation.
Moreover, he distinguishes five steps in the procedure of this technique. The first step is the formulation of general aims, since no planning or evaluation of specific behavior is possible without a general statement of objectives. Flanagan argues that “the general aim of an activity should be a brief statement obtained from the authorities in the field which expresses in simple terms those objectives to which most people would agree” (p.11). The second step is to give observers precise instructions, which must be as specific as possible. In most situations certain specifications will need to be established as regards the situation observed, the relevance of the general aim, the extent of effect on the general aim, and the persons to make the observations.
Next is the data collection phase; a necessary condition in this step is that the fact the behavior or result observed be evaluated while the facts are still fresh in the mind of the observer. According to Flanagan (1954), there are four procedures used for collecting the data: a) interviews, using trained personnel to explain the observer what data are desired and to record the incidents; b) group interviews, developed due to the cost in time and personnel of the individual interview. It provides a check on the data supplied by the interviewees and the time for editing the interviews is eliminated; c) questionnaires are used when the group becomes large. Except for the addition of personal remarks, their forms are very similar to those used in group interviews. This procedure is the most appropriate for the educational field due to the quantity of personnel within schools; and d) record forms, the collection of data by means of written works. The fourth step is analyzing the data; the purpose of this stage is to summarize and describe the collected data efficiently so that it can be used for practical purposes. The last step is the interpretation and reporting of the data.
Flanagan (1954) also distinguishes different areas in which the “critical incident technique” can be applied: a) measures of typical performance (criteria), for evaluating the typical of persons involved in the activity; b)measures of proficiency (standard samples), for evaluating the performance of persons using test situations rather than real ones; c) training, making incidents an ideal basis for developing training programs and training materials; d) selection and classification, supporting the study of the job prior to initiating testing procedures; e) job design and purification, selecting and training members for only two or three of the critical job elements; f) operating procedures, analyzing detailed factual data on successes and failures improve the effectiveness and efficiency on operations; g) equipment design, the collection of critical incidents representative of operating experience can lead to the modification of existing equipment and the design of new models; h) motivation and leadership, critical incidents may be a very valuable supplementary tool for the study of attitudes; and i) counseling and psychotherapy, emphasizing the collection of factual incidents rather than impressions or opinions.
To conclude, the critical incident technique can be of great importance in the education field. It can help us redesign the material used, when the results are not the expected ones. It can also help us recognize the lack of motivation of educators and many other aspects as well; and, it is a great tool to reflect upon our performance as educators.


Reference

Flanagan, J. C. (1954). The Critical Incident Technique. Psychological Bulletin, 51, 4. Retrieved October 2009, from http://www.apa.org/psycinfo/special/cit-article.pdf

Academic vocabulary

Purpose: To provide an overview as regards the vocabulary to be taught at an academic level.
Thesis: the vocabulary taught at an academic level is a specific one.
Audience: educators who seek to know what kind of vocabulary they should teach at an academic level.

1. Advanced vocabulary
1.1 Core vocabulary
1.1.1 common word forms
1.1.2 their central pattern of usage
1.1.3 possible combinations in which they typically collocate
1.2 Research-process vocabulary
1.2.1 verbs
1.2.2 nouns
1.3 Vocabulary of analysis
1.3.1 high-frequency verbs
1.4 Vocabulary of evaluation
1.4.1 adjectives
1.4.2 adverbs


Reference

Pintos, V. (2008) Unit 1: Building up a community of teachers and prospective researchers. Universidad CAECE: Buenos Aires, Argentina.

Approaches to teaching reading in academic contexts

When considering teaching reading in academic contexts, Bloor (1985) distinguishes at least four different methods in which it can be approached; through a psychological, linguistic, content-orientated or pedagogically-orientated approach.
When referring to the psychological approach, Bloor (1985) argues that students should practise the processes involved in reading. A real-life example could be to ask students to do a word recognition exercise with words from the text.
Taking into account the linguistic approach, Bloor (1985) states that the aim is to focus on the words and sentences of a text. He sustains that students’ reading skills will improve if they understand the linguistic features in the text. A real-life example could be to match phrases from the text to their definitions.
In a content-orientated approach, Bloor (1985) maintains that we need to give students a specific purpose for reading and; in this way, their reading skills will improve. An example could be to ask students to extract some specific information from the text by answering pre-reading questions.
Finally, considering the pedagogically-orientated approach, Bloor (985) claims that learning theories play an important role in motivating reading. Therefore, a real-life example could be to give students freedom to choose whatever they want to read. Reading will improve as a consequence of reading something they are interested in.
To conclude, teaching reading in academic contexts is of great importance. Therefore, it is essential to take into account different approaches to it so that students can get the greatest benefits from it.

Reference

Bloor, M. (1985). Some approaches to the design of reading courses in English as a foreign language. Aston University and University of Warwick. Retrieved September, 2009, from http://nflrc.hawaii.edu/rfl/PastIssues/rfl31bloor.pdf

Professional development and student achievement

Many educators believe professional development is strongly linked to improved student achievement. Howley &Howley (2005) sustain that “Policymakers and educators see professional development as a way to improve the quality of instruction in classrooms across the nation (...) it would seem that the right kinds of professional development would improve instruction, and that better instruction would result in higher student achievement.”.
Taking this into consideration, we may say that even though many politicians and educators think professional development would result in better teaching and, therefore, improve student achievement, there is no empirical evidence to support this linkage.
Considering discourse markers, they are words or phrases that are relatively syntax-independent, do not have a particular grammatical function, do not change the meaning of the utterance, and have a somewhat empty meaning. Discourse markers may have different functions. For example, they may be used to add or contrast information, or to provide reasons. Examples within the article are: “and”, “in addition”, furthermore”, “but”, “though”, “however”, “because”.
Returning to the topic of professional development, Howley & howley (2005) refer to date-based improvement as a way of improving professional development Through an ongoing process of assessment and classroom-level reform, professional development can be achieved.
To conclude, even though there is no evidence of the linkage between professional development and student achievement, it is worth trying to improve our skills and so transmit our improvement to our students.

Reference

Howley, A., & Howley, C. B. (2005). High-quality teaching: Providing for rural teachers' professional development. The Rural Educator. Retrieved September, 2009, from http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa4126/is_200501/ai_n13591361

EAP outline

Purpose: to provide an overview of English for academic purposes.
Thesis: EAP is essential in higher education studies and pre-departure courses.
Audience: English teachers and students

1. EAP definition
2. Range of settings
2.1. higher education studies
2.2. pre-departure courses
3. Courses
3.1. Types
3.1.1. Pre-sessional
3.1.2. In-sessional
3.2. Contents
3.2.1. formal teaching programs
3.2.2. self-access situations
3.2.3 distance-learning materials
3.2.4 CALL (computer-assisted language learning)
3.3. Coverage
3.3.1. EGP (English for general purposes)
3.3.2 ESP (English for Specific purposes)
a) English for Occupational / Vocational / Professional Purposes
b) English for Academic purposes
1) Common core / study skills = EGAP
2) Subject-specific = ESAP

Reference

Jordan, R. (1997). English for Academic Purposes – A guide and resource book for teachers. Cambridge UK: CUP.

Discourse community's definition

According to Swales (1990), there are some basic criteria for a discourse community to be recognized as such. These characteristics would serve to indicate whether a certain community could be considered a discourse community or not. To begin with, the people within a discourse community have common goals and community-specific genres. Kutz (1997) sustains this idea when he refers to the college community as a discourse community. He argues that the members of a college community have developed a common discourse that involves shared knowledge, common purposes, common relationships, and similar attitudes and values, shared understandings about how to communicate their knowledge and achieve their shared purposes, and a flow of discourse that has a particular structure and style (Kelly-Kleese, 2004, p.2). Furthermore, Bizzell (1992) maintains that a discourse community “is a group of people who share certain language-using practices … [that] can be seen as conventionalized” by social interactions within the group and its dealing with outsiders (Kelly-Kleese, 2001, p.1).

In addition, Swales (1990) argues that a discourse community has participatory mechanisms as well as a proper information exchange. This aspect is illustrated by Bowers (1987) when he refers to college faculty members, who are often relegated to the role of reader within the university discourse community while others take on the role of writer; they are seen as the receivers of knowledge, not the producers. But, within their own discourse community, they have more individual “ability to negotiate meanings and purposes instead of passively accepting the social realities defined by others” (Kelly-Kleese, 2001, p.3). What is more, as described in the article “Beyond Reflection” when defining situated learning discourse community, “teachers interact with colleagues in goal-directed activities that require communication and the exchange of ideas where reflection itself is not contained wholly in the mind of the individual but is ‘distributed’ through sign systems and artifacts that are embedded in the social activity of the school community” (Hoffman-Kipp, Artiles, & Lopez Torres, 2003, p.3)

Finally, Swales (1990) believes that the members in a discourse community have a high level of expertise and are able to communicate using highly specialized terminology. This point of view is supported by Zito (1984), who argues that within a discourse community, “only those who are qualified by some socially institutionalized agency may engage in such discourse and be taken seriously…the academic ‘turf’ [is] a battleground for the right to speak with authority” (Kelly-Kleese, 2004, p.3)

As has been shown, the characteristics established by Swales (1990) seem to be very logical and efficient in defining a discourse community. Many authors, such as Kutz and Bizzell, agree with them and we can find plenty of examples that illustrate Swales’ basic criteria.

References

Hoffman-Kipp, P., Artiles, A.J., & Lopez Torres, L. (2003). Beyond reflection: teacher learning as praxis. Theory into practice. Retrieved September 2009, from http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_mONQM/is_3_42/ai_108442653

Kelly-Kleese, C. (2001). Editor’s choice: An open memo to Community College Faculty and Administrators. Community College Review. Retrieved September 2009, from http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_mOHCZ/is_1_29/ai_n77481463

Kelly-Kleese, C. (2004). UCLA community college review: community college scholarship and discourse. Community College Review. Retrieved September 2009, from http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_mOHCZ/is_1_32/ai_n6361541

Swales, J. M. (1990). Genre analysis: English in academic and research settings. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.