As Swales (1990) states, the results section should summarize the data with text, tables, and/or figures. Researchers do not present the raw data they collected but they use text to state the results of their study. Results sections should be logically ordered and they may refer the reader to a table or figure where they can see the data. In this respect, Beckett, et al. (2008) research article seems to fulfill these requirements; it presents different types of figures and tables, to support the text in describing the results of the research.
Since the article’s results section is isolated from the discussion section, it does not include any kind of interpretation of the results; it has only descriptive purposes. And, to accomplish this description, the authors use tables and figures to present information which would be very difficult for the audience to comprehend in text format, as this information relates to the results of statistical analysis or pertinent quantitative data.
Tables and figures in Beckett, et al. (2008) research article have been properly numbered: table 1, table 2, figure 1, and figure 2. Additionally, tables are titled accurately, for instance: “Main Fatal and Nonfatal End Points in the Intention-to-Treat Population” (see table 2), and figures’ legends are also properly presented; for instance: “Entry, Randomization, and Follow-up of Patients in the Hypertension in the Very Elderly Trial. Of the 461 patients …” (see figure 1, p.5).
Furthermore, a very important issue when using tables or figures is that the information presented in them should not be exactly what was explained in the text (Pintos & Crimi, 2010); otherwise information would be repeated, creating a sense of distrust in the audience. The research article exemplifies this: “A total of 4761 patients entered the placebo run-in phase. Of these, 3845 were randomly assigned to one of the two study groups. The reasons for non-randomization are listed in figure 1” (Beckett, et al. 2008, Results, para.1). Additionally, past tenses and cautious language has been used in this section. For instance, “The benefits of treatment began to be apparent within the first year” (Beckett, et al. 2008, Results, para.6).
Reference
Beckett, N. S., Peters, R., Astrid, E. F., Staessen, J.A., Liu, L., Dumitrascu, D., et al. Treatment of hypertension in patients 80 years of age or older. The New England Journal of Medicine 358 (18). Retrieved from http://caece.campusuniversidad.com.ar/mod/resource/view.php?id=5754
Pintos, V., & Crimi, Y., (2010) Unit 3: The research article: results, discussions, and conclusions. Universidad CAECE: Buenos Aires, Argentina.
Swales, J.M. (1990). Genre analysis: English in academic and research settings. (Cambridge Applied Linguistics Series). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
miércoles, 23 de febrero de 2011
May abstracts be different?
“On average, the term abstract is used to refer to the short texts that need another text to exist. It is also a descriptive text considering it describes a main text (a RA). As for the main purpose of writing an abstract, we can infer that abstracts are expository in view of the fact that abstracts tend to transmit information in a clear, concise, neat, and objective way” (Pintos & Crimi, 2010, 11)
Pintos & Crimi (2010) agree with researchers in that there are two main objectives in writing an abstract: to express the major ideas or parts of your argument, and to express clearly the ways these ideas are related to each other (p. 12). Additionally, Swales and Feak (1994) sustain that there are at least two different types of abstracts: The one you include at the beginning of a RP, and the one you write for conferences.
Abstracts can be informative or indicative abstracts. The former provides readers with the main findings, and the latter indicates what kind of research has been done (Pintos & Crimi, 2010). Finally, researchers may also write structured or unstructured abstracts. Structures abstracts consist of one long paragraph, usually 125 to 150 words, and they are similar to informative abstracts. Structured abstracts contain bolded or italicized headings, each of them identifying the main sections in the RP. (Pintos & Crimi, 2010)
Linguistic specifications to describe abstracts include: the use of full sentences, past tense, and impersonal passive; the absence of negatives and the avoidance of abbreviations and jargon (Swales, 1990; Swales and Feak, 1994). Considering tense usage, Swales (1990) and Swales and Feak (1994) sustain that generally conclusions tend to be written in present; opening sentences tend to be written in present or present perfect; and, sentences describing results tend to show tense variation.
In order to put these characteristics into analysis, four abstracts extracted from research articles will be taken into consideration. The first abstract to be considered has been taken from Almerich, et al (2005): It is an unstructured abstract following the IMRAD (Introduction-Methods-Results-And-Discussions) formula. It is also informative, since it is heavy on data, looks to the past, and describes researchers’ actions, for instance, “The sample is composed of 868 teachers and the question-naire is the instrument of collection of the information” (Almerich, et al, 2005, Abstract, p. 1). Its linguistics specifications include the use of present tense throughout all the text, the use of full sentences, the use of impersonal passive, for example: “it is ana-lyzed how gender, age and type of educational institu-tion influence…” (Almerich, et al, 2005, Abstract, p. 1); and, the avoidance of abbreviations.
The second abstract has been extracted from Wijeysundera, et al (2010). This abstract is structured, as it contains bolded headings which identify the main sections in the RA. It is informative , for instance:
“After propensity score methods were used to reduce important differences between patients who did or did not undergo preoperative stress testing and assemble a matched cohort (n=46 120), testing was associated with improved one year survival (hazard ratio (HR) 0.92, 95% CI 0.86 to 0.99; P=0.03) and reduced mean hospital stay (difference −0.24 days, 95% CI −0.07 to −0.43; P<0.001)” (Wijeysundera, et al, 2010, Abstract, p. 1)
It also follows the IMRAD formula and, considering linguistic aspects, it is not always written in full sentences, for example: “Postoperative one year survival and length of stay in hospital” (Wijeysundera, et al, 2010, Abstract, p. 1). There is an absence of abbreviations and negatives and the conclusion is written in present: “These benefits principally apply to patients with risk factors for perioperative cardiac complications” (Wijeysundera, et al, 2010, Abstract, p. 1).
As regards the third abstract, it is extracted from Martínez, Assimes, Mine, Dell’Aniello, & Suissa (2010). It is structured, for instance, “Objective To assess whether use of the antidepressant…” (Martínez, et al, 2010, Abstract, p.1), and it follows the IMRAD format. This abstract is informative since it presents data, looks at the past, and describes what the researchers did. As regards linguistics specifications, it is written in past tense, even the conclusion: “In this large, population based study, the use of venlafaxine was not associated with an excess risk…”(Martínez, et al, 2010, Abstract, p.1). It is written in incomplete sentences: “Population based observational study.” and also full sentences: “We did a nested case-control analysis within a new user cohort formed using the United Kingdom General Practice Research Database” (Martínez, et al, 2010, Abstract, p.1); and it does not have abbreviations or negatives.
The fourth abstract to be considered has been extracted from Jorgensen, Zahl & Gotzsche (2010). It is also structured and informative, there are bolded headings; it is heavy on data and looks to the past. For instance; “In women who could benefit from screening (ages 55-74 years), we found a mortality decline of 1% per year in the screening areas (relative risk (RR) 0.99, 95%
confidence interval (CI) 0.96 to 1.01) during the 10 year period…” (Martínez, et al, 2010, Abstract, p.1).This abstract also follows the IMRAD format, as it has an introduction and methods, results, and discussions sections. Linguistics specifications in this abstract include the use of past tense, the avoidance of abbreviations and negatives and the use of full and incomplete sentences; for instance: “Copenhagen, where mammography screening started in 1991, and Funen county, where screening was introduced in 1993. The rest of Denmark (about 80% of the population) served as an unscreened control group” (Martínez, et al, 2010, Abstract, p.1).
Having analyzed the four abstracts, it can be assumed that abstracts may be different regarding their type; they may be informative or inductive, structured or unstructured. Similarly, there are certain linguistic specifications, such as tense, type of sentences, the use of impersonal passive, which may differentiate abstracts from one another. Also, abstracts’ formats may be different: They may follow the IMRAD format or omit one of its elements and, therefore, leave the format incomplete.
Reference
Almerich, J., Suárez, J. M., Orellana, N., Belloch, C., Bo, R., & Gastaldo, I. (2005). Diferencias en los conocimientos de los recursos tecnológicos en profesores a partir del género, edad, y tipo de centro. RELIEVE, 11 (2), 127-142. Retrieved from http://caece.campusuniversidad.com.ar/mod/resource/view.php?id=5750
Jorgensen, K. J., Zahl, P.H., & Gotzsche, P.C. (2010). Breast cancer mortality in organised mammography screening in Denmark: Comparative study. BMJ, 340 (c1241), 1-6. doi: 10.1136/bmj.c1241
Martínez, C., Assimes, T.L., Mines, D., Dell’Aniello, S., & Suissa, S. (2010). Use of venlafaxine compared with other antidepressants and the risk of sudden cardiac death or near death: A nested case-control study. BMJ, 340 (c249), 1-9. doi: 10.1136/bmj.c249
Swales, J. M. (1990). Genre analysis: English in academic and research settings. (Cambridge Applied Linguistics Series). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Swales, J. M., & Feak, C. B. (1994). Academic writing for graduate students: Essential tasks and skills. Ann Harbor, MI: The University of Michigan Press.
Wijeysundera, D.N., Beattie, W. S., Elliot, R.F., Austin, P. C., Hux, J.E., & Laupacis, A. (2010). Non-invasive cardiac stress testing before elective major non-cardiac surgery: Population based cohort study. BMJ, 340 (b5526), 1-9. doi: 10.1136/bmj.b5526
Pintos & Crimi (2010) agree with researchers in that there are two main objectives in writing an abstract: to express the major ideas or parts of your argument, and to express clearly the ways these ideas are related to each other (p. 12). Additionally, Swales and Feak (1994) sustain that there are at least two different types of abstracts: The one you include at the beginning of a RP, and the one you write for conferences.
Abstracts can be informative or indicative abstracts. The former provides readers with the main findings, and the latter indicates what kind of research has been done (Pintos & Crimi, 2010). Finally, researchers may also write structured or unstructured abstracts. Structures abstracts consist of one long paragraph, usually 125 to 150 words, and they are similar to informative abstracts. Structured abstracts contain bolded or italicized headings, each of them identifying the main sections in the RP. (Pintos & Crimi, 2010)
Linguistic specifications to describe abstracts include: the use of full sentences, past tense, and impersonal passive; the absence of negatives and the avoidance of abbreviations and jargon (Swales, 1990; Swales and Feak, 1994). Considering tense usage, Swales (1990) and Swales and Feak (1994) sustain that generally conclusions tend to be written in present; opening sentences tend to be written in present or present perfect; and, sentences describing results tend to show tense variation.
In order to put these characteristics into analysis, four abstracts extracted from research articles will be taken into consideration. The first abstract to be considered has been taken from Almerich, et al (2005): It is an unstructured abstract following the IMRAD (Introduction-Methods-Results-And-Discussions) formula. It is also informative, since it is heavy on data, looks to the past, and describes researchers’ actions, for instance, “The sample is composed of 868 teachers and the question-naire is the instrument of collection of the information” (Almerich, et al, 2005, Abstract, p. 1). Its linguistics specifications include the use of present tense throughout all the text, the use of full sentences, the use of impersonal passive, for example: “it is ana-lyzed how gender, age and type of educational institu-tion influence…” (Almerich, et al, 2005, Abstract, p. 1); and, the avoidance of abbreviations.
The second abstract has been extracted from Wijeysundera, et al (2010). This abstract is structured, as it contains bolded headings which identify the main sections in the RA. It is informative , for instance:
“After propensity score methods were used to reduce important differences between patients who did or did not undergo preoperative stress testing and assemble a matched cohort (n=46 120), testing was associated with improved one year survival (hazard ratio (HR) 0.92, 95% CI 0.86 to 0.99; P=0.03) and reduced mean hospital stay (difference −0.24 days, 95% CI −0.07 to −0.43; P<0.001)” (Wijeysundera, et al, 2010, Abstract, p. 1)
It also follows the IMRAD formula and, considering linguistic aspects, it is not always written in full sentences, for example: “Postoperative one year survival and length of stay in hospital” (Wijeysundera, et al, 2010, Abstract, p. 1). There is an absence of abbreviations and negatives and the conclusion is written in present: “These benefits principally apply to patients with risk factors for perioperative cardiac complications” (Wijeysundera, et al, 2010, Abstract, p. 1).
As regards the third abstract, it is extracted from Martínez, Assimes, Mine, Dell’Aniello, & Suissa (2010). It is structured, for instance, “Objective To assess whether use of the antidepressant…” (Martínez, et al, 2010, Abstract, p.1), and it follows the IMRAD format. This abstract is informative since it presents data, looks at the past, and describes what the researchers did. As regards linguistics specifications, it is written in past tense, even the conclusion: “In this large, population based study, the use of venlafaxine was not associated with an excess risk…”(Martínez, et al, 2010, Abstract, p.1). It is written in incomplete sentences: “Population based observational study.” and also full sentences: “We did a nested case-control analysis within a new user cohort formed using the United Kingdom General Practice Research Database” (Martínez, et al, 2010, Abstract, p.1); and it does not have abbreviations or negatives.
The fourth abstract to be considered has been extracted from Jorgensen, Zahl & Gotzsche (2010). It is also structured and informative, there are bolded headings; it is heavy on data and looks to the past. For instance; “In women who could benefit from screening (ages 55-74 years), we found a mortality decline of 1% per year in the screening areas (relative risk (RR) 0.99, 95%
confidence interval (CI) 0.96 to 1.01) during the 10 year period…” (Martínez, et al, 2010, Abstract, p.1).This abstract also follows the IMRAD format, as it has an introduction and methods, results, and discussions sections. Linguistics specifications in this abstract include the use of past tense, the avoidance of abbreviations and negatives and the use of full and incomplete sentences; for instance: “Copenhagen, where mammography screening started in 1991, and Funen county, where screening was introduced in 1993. The rest of Denmark (about 80% of the population) served as an unscreened control group” (Martínez, et al, 2010, Abstract, p.1).
Having analyzed the four abstracts, it can be assumed that abstracts may be different regarding their type; they may be informative or inductive, structured or unstructured. Similarly, there are certain linguistic specifications, such as tense, type of sentences, the use of impersonal passive, which may differentiate abstracts from one another. Also, abstracts’ formats may be different: They may follow the IMRAD format or omit one of its elements and, therefore, leave the format incomplete.
Reference
Almerich, J., Suárez, J. M., Orellana, N., Belloch, C., Bo, R., & Gastaldo, I. (2005). Diferencias en los conocimientos de los recursos tecnológicos en profesores a partir del género, edad, y tipo de centro. RELIEVE, 11 (2), 127-142. Retrieved from http://caece.campusuniversidad.com.ar/mod/resource/view.php?id=5750
Jorgensen, K. J., Zahl, P.H., & Gotzsche, P.C. (2010). Breast cancer mortality in organised mammography screening in Denmark: Comparative study. BMJ, 340 (c1241), 1-6. doi: 10.1136/bmj.c1241
Martínez, C., Assimes, T.L., Mines, D., Dell’Aniello, S., & Suissa, S. (2010). Use of venlafaxine compared with other antidepressants and the risk of sudden cardiac death or near death: A nested case-control study. BMJ, 340 (c249), 1-9. doi: 10.1136/bmj.c249
Swales, J. M. (1990). Genre analysis: English in academic and research settings. (Cambridge Applied Linguistics Series). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Swales, J. M., & Feak, C. B. (1994). Academic writing for graduate students: Essential tasks and skills. Ann Harbor, MI: The University of Michigan Press.
Wijeysundera, D.N., Beattie, W. S., Elliot, R.F., Austin, P. C., Hux, J.E., & Laupacis, A. (2010). Non-invasive cardiac stress testing before elective major non-cardiac surgery: Population based cohort study. BMJ, 340 (b5526), 1-9. doi: 10.1136/bmj.b5526
A review on research papers organization
Research Papers and Research Articles are composed of several parts: “title, abstract, acknowledgements, introduction, literature review, methods, results, discussions, recommendations, references, and appendixes” (Pintos & Crimi, 2010, p.27). Considering these aspects, two research articles will be analyzed, a medicine research paper, and an educational research paper.
As regards introductions, both articles follow the Create a Research Space Model (C.A.R. S.), which has been created under the principle that writers use organizational patters to present their introduction. Consequently, they are structured in a general-specific manner. Moreover, they seem to follow the three moves: 1) establish a research territory, 2) present their motivations for the study, and 3) state what the research is about.
In the medicine research article, the research territory is Public Health and tobacco controls and “FDA evaluation and regulation of ‘modified-risk’ tobacco products” (Deyton, Hamburg & Sharfstei, 2010, para.15); their motivation for the study is the amount of deaths due to tobacco use; and the research is about the Tobacco Control Act. Similarly, in the educational research article, the research territory is the classroom and other situations of teacher learning; the motivation is that “the perceptions teachers perceive of themselves can be a powerful barrier to change” (Wenzlaff & Wieseman, 2004, ¶ 1); and the research is about the “nature of teacher learning in a cohort-based, master's degree program in curriculum and pedagogy” (Wenzlaff & Wieseman, 2004, ¶ 2).
Referring to the Methods sections, they are generally divided into three subsections: a) participants, b) materials, and c) procedure (Pintos & Crimi, 2010, ¶ 34). Reflecting upon the two articles, both of them present methods sections; however, they are not equally mentioned. In the medicine article, the methods section is not differentiated from the text. Methods are described within the text; for instance, “the FDA is working closely with other government agencies across the country” (Deyton, Hamburg & Sharfstei, 2010, ¶ 18), or “The FDA will also have an office dedicated to helping small businesses understand and comply with new regulatory requirements” (Deyton, Hamburg & Sharfstei, 2010, ¶ 20). On the other hand, in the case of the educational article, the methods section is explained under the heading “Research Process” (Wenzlaff & Wieseman, 2004, p.2).
Additionally, appendixes and process notes are not included in any of the articles, and American Psychological Association (APA) conventions are not followed since they are articles, and do not follow paper format. As has been exemplified in the preceding paragraphs, both articles share many features as regards their organization in their introductions, and just a few dissimilarities, for instance in the methods sections.
Reference
Deyton, L., Hamburg, M., & Sharfstei, J. (2010, April 21). Tobacco Product Regulation – A Public Health Approach. The New England Journal of Medicine. Retrieved from http://healthcarereform.nejm.org/?p=3346&query=home
Pintos, V., & Crimi, Y. (2010) Unit 2: The Research article: introduction, literature review and method sections. Universidad CAECE: Buenos Aires, Argentina.
Wenzlaff, T. L.,& Wieseman, K. C. (2004). Teachers Need Teachers To Grow. Teacher Education Quarterly. Retrieved from
http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa3960/is_200404/ai_n9349405/?tag=content;col1
As regards introductions, both articles follow the Create a Research Space Model (C.A.R. S.), which has been created under the principle that writers use organizational patters to present their introduction. Consequently, they are structured in a general-specific manner. Moreover, they seem to follow the three moves: 1) establish a research territory, 2) present their motivations for the study, and 3) state what the research is about.
In the medicine research article, the research territory is Public Health and tobacco controls and “FDA evaluation and regulation of ‘modified-risk’ tobacco products” (Deyton, Hamburg & Sharfstei, 2010, para.15); their motivation for the study is the amount of deaths due to tobacco use; and the research is about the Tobacco Control Act. Similarly, in the educational research article, the research territory is the classroom and other situations of teacher learning; the motivation is that “the perceptions teachers perceive of themselves can be a powerful barrier to change” (Wenzlaff & Wieseman, 2004, ¶ 1); and the research is about the “nature of teacher learning in a cohort-based, master's degree program in curriculum and pedagogy” (Wenzlaff & Wieseman, 2004, ¶ 2).
Referring to the Methods sections, they are generally divided into three subsections: a) participants, b) materials, and c) procedure (Pintos & Crimi, 2010, ¶ 34). Reflecting upon the two articles, both of them present methods sections; however, they are not equally mentioned. In the medicine article, the methods section is not differentiated from the text. Methods are described within the text; for instance, “the FDA is working closely with other government agencies across the country” (Deyton, Hamburg & Sharfstei, 2010, ¶ 18), or “The FDA will also have an office dedicated to helping small businesses understand and comply with new regulatory requirements” (Deyton, Hamburg & Sharfstei, 2010, ¶ 20). On the other hand, in the case of the educational article, the methods section is explained under the heading “Research Process” (Wenzlaff & Wieseman, 2004, p.2).
Additionally, appendixes and process notes are not included in any of the articles, and American Psychological Association (APA) conventions are not followed since they are articles, and do not follow paper format. As has been exemplified in the preceding paragraphs, both articles share many features as regards their organization in their introductions, and just a few dissimilarities, for instance in the methods sections.
Reference
Deyton, L., Hamburg, M., & Sharfstei, J. (2010, April 21). Tobacco Product Regulation – A Public Health Approach. The New England Journal of Medicine. Retrieved from http://healthcarereform.nejm.org/?p=3346&query=home
Pintos, V., & Crimi, Y. (2010) Unit 2: The Research article: introduction, literature review and method sections. Universidad CAECE: Buenos Aires, Argentina.
Wenzlaff, T. L.,& Wieseman, K. C. (2004). Teachers Need Teachers To Grow. Teacher Education Quarterly. Retrieved from
http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa3960/is_200404/ai_n9349405/?tag=content;col1
martes, 16 de febrero de 2010
Annotated bibliography
Flanagan, J.C. (1954). The Critical Incident Technique. Psychological Bulletin, 51, 4. Retrieved November 15, 2009, from http://www.apa.org/psycinfo/special/cit-article.pdf
Flanagan (1954) defines critical incidents and the Critical incident Technique; and provides a depiction of this procedure, describing the five main steps included in its present form. Additionally, examples of studies applying the critical incident technique are provided as well as possible areas in which this technique can be applied. All in all, the author supplies some conclusions and a brief summary of the article.
Flanagan (1954) defines critical incidents and the Critical incident Technique; and provides a depiction of this procedure, describing the five main steps included in its present form. Additionally, examples of studies applying the critical incident technique are provided as well as possible areas in which this technique can be applied. All in all, the author supplies some conclusions and a brief summary of the article.
Focusing on paragraph organization
A paragraph is a group of related sentences which develop one main idea called the topic. Within a paragraph we may find topic sentences, supporting sentences and concluding sentences. A topic sentence is a general idea that tells the reader what the paragraph is about. It is a complete sentence that has a subject, a verb, and a controlling idea. A supporting sentence develops the topic sentence and gives special information about the topic. And, a concluding sentence completes and summarizes the development of the topic of the sentence (Pintos, 2009)
Let’s consider the following topic sentences:
a-Explorers investigating a large area located in the south of Venezuela called that area “The Lost World” because of what they found there.
b-Several signs can be observed before and during the passage of a cold front.
The controlling ideas in a) are: explorers, a large area, south of Venezuela, “The Lost World”, and what they found there. Two possible questions that may be answered in the paragraphs following this topic sentence are: Which explorers? And, What did they find there? In addition, two possible supporting sentences may be:
-Since quicksand was found in some parts of the area, explorers could not search for the missing ring.
-After many hours walking round the area, they found the ring in the finger of the corpse.
Moreover, an appropriate concluding sentence for a) could be:
-Nevertheless, “The Lost World” will remain a mystery.
The controlling ideas in b) are: several, signs, observed, and the passage of a cold front. Two possible questions answered in the possible following paragraphs might be: How many signs? And, What kind of signs? Besides, two possible subordinate sentences could be:
-Cold fronts may on occasion be preceded by squall lines or dry lines.
-Additionally, cold fronts may feature narrow bands of thunderstorms and severe weather.
Finally, a possible concluding sentence for this topic sentence may be:
-Consequently, the passage of cold fronts promotes changes in the entire ecosystem.
Having analyzed these two topic sentences and proposed possible subordinate and concluding sentences, a reinforcing practice on paragraph organization has been provided.
Reference
Pintos, V. (2008) Unit 3: Academic Writing. Universidad CAECE: Buenos Aires,
Argentina. Retrieved September 2009, from http://caece.campusuniversidad.com.ar/mod/resource/view.php?id=2725
Let’s consider the following topic sentences:
a-Explorers investigating a large area located in the south of Venezuela called that area “The Lost World” because of what they found there.
b-Several signs can be observed before and during the passage of a cold front.
The controlling ideas in a) are: explorers, a large area, south of Venezuela, “The Lost World”, and what they found there. Two possible questions that may be answered in the paragraphs following this topic sentence are: Which explorers? And, What did they find there? In addition, two possible supporting sentences may be:
-Since quicksand was found in some parts of the area, explorers could not search for the missing ring.
-After many hours walking round the area, they found the ring in the finger of the corpse.
Moreover, an appropriate concluding sentence for a) could be:
-Nevertheless, “The Lost World” will remain a mystery.
The controlling ideas in b) are: several, signs, observed, and the passage of a cold front. Two possible questions answered in the possible following paragraphs might be: How many signs? And, What kind of signs? Besides, two possible subordinate sentences could be:
-Cold fronts may on occasion be preceded by squall lines or dry lines.
-Additionally, cold fronts may feature narrow bands of thunderstorms and severe weather.
Finally, a possible concluding sentence for this topic sentence may be:
-Consequently, the passage of cold fronts promotes changes in the entire ecosystem.
Having analyzed these two topic sentences and proposed possible subordinate and concluding sentences, a reinforcing practice on paragraph organization has been provided.
Reference
Pintos, V. (2008) Unit 3: Academic Writing. Universidad CAECE: Buenos Aires,
Argentina. Retrieved September 2009, from http://caece.campusuniversidad.com.ar/mod/resource/view.php?id=2725
Critical incidents in teacher training
Being an educator is a hard task; most of us had to learn a lot and prepare for this incredible experience that is teaching. But, Were we really prepared? Teaching may be much different in practice than in theory. As a result, the use of critical incidents has been included in teacher training in order to prepare future educators for unexpected classroom situations.
A critical incident is a strategy in which particular teaching situations are presented to the future educators, who are asked to take a decision taking into consideration the provided information. This allows students to make an analysis of the specific situations without running any risks; thus, getting closer to reality (Fernández & Fernández, 1994). Furthermore, critical incidents in teacher training are structured in a) the context in which they occur, b) the description of the incident, c) the possible causes, and d) the solutions. Consequently, students have many aspects to consider when reaching their conclusions.
Personally, I do not think I was really prepared when I started teaching but I learnt to manage critical incidents in the practice. During my first month at school, I realized that one of my students was very active in class but got very low marks in the weekly tests. I tried to find out what was wrong and so I asked him/her whether he/she found tests very difficult or if he/she didn’t understand instructions. He/she insisted that he did not know what the problem was. I also noted that his/her handwriting was very careless and almost illegible. Finally, after consulting my coordinator and talking to his/her mother, we decided that he/she should take weekly tests orally. Therefore, the solution was reached but I was not able to find out what the real problem was; at that moment I realized how unprepared I was and how much more there was still to learn.
Concluding, I want to point out the fact that it is absolutely essential that future teachers get involved in more real classroom situations before graduating. The implementation of critical incidents in teacher training is a fantastic strategy that will definitely lead to the improvement of teaching-learning processes.
Reference
Elórtegui Escartín, N., Fernández González, J. & Medina Pérez, M. (2003). Los
incidentes críticos en la formación y perfeccionamiento del profesorado de secundaria de ciencias de la naturaleza. Revista Interuniversitaria de Formación de Profesorado, 17 - 001. Zaragoza, España: Universidad de Zaragoza. Retrieved November 10, 2009, from http://redalyc.uaemex.mx/redalyc/src/inicio/ArtPdfRed.jsp?iCve=27417107
A critical incident is a strategy in which particular teaching situations are presented to the future educators, who are asked to take a decision taking into consideration the provided information. This allows students to make an analysis of the specific situations without running any risks; thus, getting closer to reality (Fernández & Fernández, 1994). Furthermore, critical incidents in teacher training are structured in a) the context in which they occur, b) the description of the incident, c) the possible causes, and d) the solutions. Consequently, students have many aspects to consider when reaching their conclusions.
Personally, I do not think I was really prepared when I started teaching but I learnt to manage critical incidents in the practice. During my first month at school, I realized that one of my students was very active in class but got very low marks in the weekly tests. I tried to find out what was wrong and so I asked him/her whether he/she found tests very difficult or if he/she didn’t understand instructions. He/she insisted that he did not know what the problem was. I also noted that his/her handwriting was very careless and almost illegible. Finally, after consulting my coordinator and talking to his/her mother, we decided that he/she should take weekly tests orally. Therefore, the solution was reached but I was not able to find out what the real problem was; at that moment I realized how unprepared I was and how much more there was still to learn.
Concluding, I want to point out the fact that it is absolutely essential that future teachers get involved in more real classroom situations before graduating. The implementation of critical incidents in teacher training is a fantastic strategy that will definitely lead to the improvement of teaching-learning processes.
Reference
Elórtegui Escartín, N., Fernández González, J. & Medina Pérez, M. (2003). Los
incidentes críticos en la formación y perfeccionamiento del profesorado de secundaria de ciencias de la naturaleza. Revista Interuniversitaria de Formación de Profesorado, 17 - 001. Zaragoza, España: Universidad de Zaragoza. Retrieved November 10, 2009, from http://redalyc.uaemex.mx/redalyc/src/inicio/ArtPdfRed.jsp?iCve=27417107
Reflecting upon the teaching practice
There are different methods that help educators reflect upon their practices and the critical incident technique is one of them. Flanagan (1954) states in his article, “The Critical Incident Technique”, that this technique is composed of “a set of procedures for collecting direct observation of human behavior in such a way as to facilitate their potential usefulness in solving practical problems and developing broad psychological principles”(p.1). The writer defines an incident as any observable human activity that allows inferences and predictions about the person performing the act which, in order to be critical, must take place in a situation where the purpose of the act is clear to the observer and where the consequences are definite.
Flanagan (1954) emphasizes that this critical incident technique should be considered as a “flexible set of principles which must be modified and adapted to meet the specific situation at hand”, not as single rigid set of rules (p.9). Objectivity plays an important role in this technique since the extent to which the report of an observation can be considered as a fact depends on the objectivity of the observation.
Moreover, he distinguishes five steps in the procedure of this technique. The first step is the formulation of general aims, since no planning or evaluation of specific behavior is possible without a general statement of objectives. Flanagan argues that “the general aim of an activity should be a brief statement obtained from the authorities in the field which expresses in simple terms those objectives to which most people would agree” (p.11). The second step is to give observers precise instructions, which must be as specific as possible. In most situations certain specifications will need to be established as regards the situation observed, the relevance of the general aim, the extent of effect on the general aim, and the persons to make the observations.
Next is the data collection phase; a necessary condition in this step is that the fact the behavior or result observed be evaluated while the facts are still fresh in the mind of the observer. According to Flanagan (1954), there are four procedures used for collecting the data: a) interviews, using trained personnel to explain the observer what data are desired and to record the incidents; b) group interviews, developed due to the cost in time and personnel of the individual interview. It provides a check on the data supplied by the interviewees and the time for editing the interviews is eliminated; c) questionnaires are used when the group becomes large. Except for the addition of personal remarks, their forms are very similar to those used in group interviews. This procedure is the most appropriate for the educational field due to the quantity of personnel within schools; and d) record forms, the collection of data by means of written works. The fourth step is analyzing the data; the purpose of this stage is to summarize and describe the collected data efficiently so that it can be used for practical purposes. The last step is the interpretation and reporting of the data.
Flanagan (1954) also distinguishes different areas in which the “critical incident technique” can be applied: a) measures of typical performance (criteria), for evaluating the typical of persons involved in the activity; b)measures of proficiency (standard samples), for evaluating the performance of persons using test situations rather than real ones; c) training, making incidents an ideal basis for developing training programs and training materials; d) selection and classification, supporting the study of the job prior to initiating testing procedures; e) job design and purification, selecting and training members for only two or three of the critical job elements; f) operating procedures, analyzing detailed factual data on successes and failures improve the effectiveness and efficiency on operations; g) equipment design, the collection of critical incidents representative of operating experience can lead to the modification of existing equipment and the design of new models; h) motivation and leadership, critical incidents may be a very valuable supplementary tool for the study of attitudes; and i) counseling and psychotherapy, emphasizing the collection of factual incidents rather than impressions or opinions.
To conclude, the critical incident technique can be of great importance in the education field. It can help us redesign the material used, when the results are not the expected ones. It can also help us recognize the lack of motivation of educators and many other aspects as well; and, it is a great tool to reflect upon our performance as educators.
Reference
Flanagan, J. C. (1954). The Critical Incident Technique. Psychological Bulletin, 51, 4. Retrieved October 2009, from http://www.apa.org/psycinfo/special/cit-article.pdf
Flanagan (1954) emphasizes that this critical incident technique should be considered as a “flexible set of principles which must be modified and adapted to meet the specific situation at hand”, not as single rigid set of rules (p.9). Objectivity plays an important role in this technique since the extent to which the report of an observation can be considered as a fact depends on the objectivity of the observation.
Moreover, he distinguishes five steps in the procedure of this technique. The first step is the formulation of general aims, since no planning or evaluation of specific behavior is possible without a general statement of objectives. Flanagan argues that “the general aim of an activity should be a brief statement obtained from the authorities in the field which expresses in simple terms those objectives to which most people would agree” (p.11). The second step is to give observers precise instructions, which must be as specific as possible. In most situations certain specifications will need to be established as regards the situation observed, the relevance of the general aim, the extent of effect on the general aim, and the persons to make the observations.
Next is the data collection phase; a necessary condition in this step is that the fact the behavior or result observed be evaluated while the facts are still fresh in the mind of the observer. According to Flanagan (1954), there are four procedures used for collecting the data: a) interviews, using trained personnel to explain the observer what data are desired and to record the incidents; b) group interviews, developed due to the cost in time and personnel of the individual interview. It provides a check on the data supplied by the interviewees and the time for editing the interviews is eliminated; c) questionnaires are used when the group becomes large. Except for the addition of personal remarks, their forms are very similar to those used in group interviews. This procedure is the most appropriate for the educational field due to the quantity of personnel within schools; and d) record forms, the collection of data by means of written works. The fourth step is analyzing the data; the purpose of this stage is to summarize and describe the collected data efficiently so that it can be used for practical purposes. The last step is the interpretation and reporting of the data.
Flanagan (1954) also distinguishes different areas in which the “critical incident technique” can be applied: a) measures of typical performance (criteria), for evaluating the typical of persons involved in the activity; b)measures of proficiency (standard samples), for evaluating the performance of persons using test situations rather than real ones; c) training, making incidents an ideal basis for developing training programs and training materials; d) selection and classification, supporting the study of the job prior to initiating testing procedures; e) job design and purification, selecting and training members for only two or three of the critical job elements; f) operating procedures, analyzing detailed factual data on successes and failures improve the effectiveness and efficiency on operations; g) equipment design, the collection of critical incidents representative of operating experience can lead to the modification of existing equipment and the design of new models; h) motivation and leadership, critical incidents may be a very valuable supplementary tool for the study of attitudes; and i) counseling and psychotherapy, emphasizing the collection of factual incidents rather than impressions or opinions.
To conclude, the critical incident technique can be of great importance in the education field. It can help us redesign the material used, when the results are not the expected ones. It can also help us recognize the lack of motivation of educators and many other aspects as well; and, it is a great tool to reflect upon our performance as educators.
Reference
Flanagan, J. C. (1954). The Critical Incident Technique. Psychological Bulletin, 51, 4. Retrieved October 2009, from http://www.apa.org/psycinfo/special/cit-article.pdf
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